Here is a good introduction to the physiology of Standing Meditation, (YiQuan) from Marnix Wells website.
Biomechanics
The continuing evolution of sporting performance that sees few world records stand today that did 20 years ago is, roughly speaking, a function of two variables: increased professionalism amongst the atheletes, and increased knowledge of the body and how to train it scientificaly amongst coaches and technical staff. (Not ignoring the contribution of improvments in technical equipment.) The fields of kinematics, biomechanics, and sports-psychology have evolved to give that scientific aid to coaches: that athletes might train not only harder, but more effectively as well. It may be of interest to ask whether any of this recent progress can help us understand what the practice of standing might be doing. (How much of what is taught can be theoreticaly validated from a western scientific standpoint - one reason for asking this question is that better understanding can be leveraged for better practice.) I have limited expertise in any of these areas (though have been on the receiving end of some), but perhaps enough to offer some thoughts.
Statics or Dynamics?
On the exterior, little movement would seem to be taking place. However, on the inside, anyone practicing for any length of time will soon become aware that work is being done to maintain posture against/ consistent with the force of gravity. A movement (e.g. multi-joint action) is typically generated by a specific pattern of intra-muscular coordination. Muscles are recruited to the movement to effecitvely provide a mechanical framework for the transferance of energy such that coupled forces on the joints are maximised while inappropriate movement is minimised. (Coordination may be defined as increased control of the degrees of freedom in a movement chain.) Given this, one can classify the muscles in any action according to the function they fullfill:
- agonist (prime mover)
primary muscle responsible for a movement around a joint at any given point in time - antagonist
primary muscle responsible for the opposite movement around a joint (thus able to act as a "break") - synergist (secondary/ assitant mover)
muscles which dynamically assist the prime mover in its action, but have a lesser contribution to work done - stabiliser
muscles which anchor or stabilise one part of the body through static activity, allowing another part to move. They assist the prime mover and synergists through "isometric" muscular contraction (see bellow), and have a particular role in the stablisation of joints
As the adjustments that are being made are to do with the maintance of posture and balance, they would fall under "stabilser". It makes a great deal of sense for standing to be training at this level: it is a standard principle of sport´s training that there one should train in the progression of stability->strength->power. Given the action of stabilisers in supporting the joints, one must ensure they are engaged prior to the movers (else efficency is lost and there is a risk of damage to the joint structure and surrounding tissue). This progression is entirely analogous to producing power as a single unit: it is the stabilisers that bind one together into this unit, and the coordinated recruitment of movers that keep the power sequential and unified.
Another progression within training is general->relevent->specific exercises. (See bellow on plyometrics.) The more specific an exercise, the more concerned with particular technique it will be - it is important to be training correct sequences of body movement and not training in a way that demands compensatory movements (due to over- or inappropriate loading) that will be ingrained and will then interfere with performance. If we consider the body as a system of levers then static contractions are responsible for the discrete adjustements to hold these levers in optimal alignment. By gaining increasing control over these processes, technical proficiency increases. Again, we move as a coordinated unit - but now with increased fine control.
Both of these progressions hold true at the general level for any movement involving joints... however, there is a particular structure of joints and their associated musculature that are crucial to weight-baring (posture) and the coordination of the extremities of the body with the core (technique).Core Strength
The core is here defined as the lumbar-pelvic-hip complex, and consists of the gluteals, abdominals, hip flexors, and spinal muscles. It is where our center of gravity is located, all power movements begin, and is a crucial factor in spinal alignment, balance, and posture. Shown above, the erector spinae and rectus abdominis are "movers" while the transversus abdominis act as a "stabiliser". The internal and external obliques are "prime movers", but can also act as stabilisers depending on the movement. These are the usual msucles discussed as core ... but from our definition we see that many others are involved, e.g. the illio-psoas etc.
Before I had started studying with Marnix, he was using his years of practice and knowledge of classical Chinese to try to understand the connection between the center, kua, hips, waist, spine etc. His thinking led to a definition/ translation of dantian that widens to refer to "a single point of balance, but also to the pelvic girdle, lower spine, hips"" (see article on Key Principles) At times it seems the old texts, and the language that is used by current practitioners, are very precise at distinguishing each part of the center and assigning a specific role to each. At others, more general qualities of "movement from the center" or "dantian movement" are used that clearly involve more than a single point of balance. We should not be surprised that the internal martial tradition closely matches modern theories on the importance of the core for movement and power within movements.
Some points can be made on the training of the core. There are many exercises that have been evolved to work the area (various "plank" or "bridge", Swiss ball, wobble/ balance discs etc.) and it may be of interest to explore some. Such exercises designed to isolate the core may be of particular help to those beginning practice from a low level of functional strength in the area. However, one usually thinks of a training program in terms of specificity, overload, and reversability. The element of specificity I will particularly mention here is that an exercise program should be sport-specific. Generic exercises (such as those mentioned above) form the base of a triangle, with increasingly fine movement directed to the precise needs of the sport as one nears the apex. One should only be training isolated groups when they are lacking relative to the rest of the movement chain... and one is only then training them up to a level such that they can be integrated into the chain. (This is the basis of remedial programs.) Given the very high usage of the stabilisers and core in standing (and subsequent movement within the internal MA), combined with the recruitment of mobilisers to aid power, it is important to be aware of the integration of the two in any training program.
It may also be of interest to note the following principles that are observed within core training, and make mental connections with principles of the internal MA. Firstly, the back and pelvis should always be stable and in a "neutral" position (keeping natural curvature of the spine. See entry on Sinking in Key Principles). Where core strength is lacking, one will often see an athlete recruit larger muscles groups, usually fulfilling the task of prime-movers, to aid the holding of a static posture. This should be strictly avoided as it causes a higher strain on the spine (bowing - usually lumbar), and is inefficient use of the larger groups (which must then assume a role for which they are not physiologicaly inclined. In stabilising muscle slow-twitch (red, type1) fibres dominate, whereas prime movers have a higher percentage of fast-twitch (white, type2). The exact proportion of type1 to type2 within a muscle is genetic, though there is some evidence that the proportion of type2a and type2b may be altered through training). Secondly, one deliberately seeks to recruit the core by means of drawing the belly button/ abdominals in. This raises the activation levels within the core, and thus they are better able to respond and more likely to be recruited. This drawing-in is strongly related to certain breathing methods, and instructions to lift the pelvic floor etc. within the internal MA.
Isometrics
In our school, at the beginning of a training session, we will often assume the position "Press Down". After a time holding this, the press is released as we transition into the next posture: without much conscious prompting the hands rise naturaly (slowly drifting upwards). It is then a simple matter to take up a higher "All Round Stance". When talking about the above, my teacher asked what might be the cause of such a movement: the following is what I can gather as regards an answer.
When one settles into the first posture, there must be substance in the hands and arms. They must not hang without activation; rather the mental intent obvious in the name of the posture must be equally so in the phsycality of the body - the muscles must be doing something. Muscular contraction is usually classified under one of the following:
- isokinetic
(iso = equal, kinetic = speed)
contraction in which the speed of movement remains constant - isotonic
(iso = equal, tonic = tension)
contraction in which the tension remains constant - isoinertial
(iso = equal, inertial = resistance of a body to a change in its velocity)
recent suggestion in the academic community: the action of lifting a free weight: tension is not the same throughout all parts of the lift so the term "isotonic" which was used to describe this sort of action is not strictly valid - isometric
(iso = equal, metric = length)
action in which the overall length of the muscle remains constant as the activtion increases or decreases
As the posture is essentialy static at the gross level, the action of the muscles must come under "isometric". Individual muscles are exerting a force, but the net force and torque around the joints sums to zero (hence no movement). When the press is "released" the downwards element is relaxed while the upward counter-force remains. Thus there is now a net force and torque and movement is initiated in accordance with Newtonian mechanics. It is worth noting (following Dick, p.226-7) that isometric exercises are "frequently, but mistakenly, thought of only as maximum force of contraction ... however, the ability to balance on one foot, to maintain an upright posture ... or to hold a vertical alignment of shoulder/ hip ... are all examples of static contraction" (and hence isometric). While the contractions involved in holding "push down" are small compared to maximum volantary contraction (MVC), they are significant in terms of training. What follows is a brief review of some studies on isometric exercise:
Here we enter an interesting area of training that caused a large amount of controversy when two German physiologists (Muller and Hettinger, 1954) performed a study which claimed that one six second isometric contraction at two-thirds maximum performed once each day for five days was sufficient for 5% strength gains per week. This result is now considered rather too large: but most academics will agree that isometric strength training is a legimate method - within certain constraints. There are some differences between the isometric action found in standing practice, and the methods of training found in modern sport´s science. The graph to the left (sometimes referred to as Rohmert's curve) shows the relationship between % MVC and time until fatigue (endurance limit such that the contraction can be held). Whereas 10% MVC can be sustained almost indefinitely, 50% can be held for just over a minute, and MVC for only a few seconds. The sport´s science community advocates holding an isometric exercise for a high percentage of MVC: typically 6-8 seconds at a time. Time is allowed for recovery, before the next set is performed: 5 to 10 in all. As blood flow may be completely occluded at forces only slightly more than 15% MVC due to high intramuscular pressure (the exact figure depends on the anatomical relationship of muscle and bone), this has implications for energy metabolism, arterial blood pressure and heart rate.
When the muscle is deprived of its capability of supply and removal it becomes a closed system where the products of metabolism accumulate and substrate must be acquired from intramuscular stores. Although there are lipid droplets sequestered in muscle cells their oxidation can not proceed in the absence of adequate molecular oxygen normally delivered by the circulation. Hence, the substrate of choice is, by default, muscle glycogen. Cardiac output is little affected by isometric contractions in comparison to the dramatic changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate. Cardiovascular responses to isometric contraction are characterized by a swift increase in heart rate (typically within 0.5s), and an increase in arterial blood pressure. In turn, these changes result in a large increase in preload and consequently stroke work of the myocardium. In circumstances where contraction is sustained for 60 sec or more the changes in HR and BP do not appear to reach a steady state, but rather continue to increase until the muscle is unable to maintain the desired level of force. For those with a history, or at potential risk of, cardiovascular problems, isometric exercise is strongly contra-indicated! Standing practice is a much gentler (though not undemanding) exercise.
Physiological Changes to Muscle-Tendon Tissue
Various studies have been carried out on the difference between static (isometric) and dynamic training methods. One representative study (Duchateau and Hainaut) indicates that "human muscle adapts differently to isometric or to dynamic training programs" at a physiological level, having observed a differential alteration to the contractile kinetics of subjects exposed to different regimes. The table bellow gives a summary of their results (figures are percentage difference from values acheived pre regime):
| Dynamic | Isometric | |
| Maximal tetanic tension | 11% | 20% |
| Peak rate of tension development | 31% | 18% |
| Twitch force | 25% | 20% |
| Rate of twitch tension development | 16% | 20% |
| Rate of twitch relaxation | -10% | 12% |
| Contraction time | -11% | no change |
| Time of half relaxation (T 1/2R) | -9% | no change |
| Maximal shortening velocity | 21% | no change |
| Maximal muscle power | 19% | 51% |
It should be noted that the two regimes cannot be considered to be equvilent - this is not the point of the study. The study does demonstrate, however, that the two modes give rise to very different characteristics of muscle performance. Of these variables, the development of muscle power (which is a function of the load on which work is performed) shows a shift of the optimal peak toward heavier loads for isometric training.
A more recent study examined what effect isometric training had on the elasticity of tendon structures (Kubo, Kaneshisa, Ito, and Fukunaga). The study looked at changes to the Young´s Modulus of the major tendon of quadriceps femoris. (Young's Modulus [of Elasticity] is defined as Stress/ Strain and is shown as the slope of the line of the graph to the left). The results are summarised bellow:
| Isometric | |
| Muscle volume | 7.6% |
| MVC torque | 33.9% |
| Tendon stiffness | 57.3% |
| Rate of torque development | 35.8% |
| Electromechanical delay | -18.4% |
The mechanisms that result in the observed increase in Young´s modulus are unknown. No hypertrophy was seen in the tendon structure, sugesting that the change was internal to the tendon and/ or aponeurosis giving an increase in the amount of force produced per unit of muscle cross-sectional area - the specific tension. A number of studies indicate changes to the degree of alignement of the tendon's constituent collagen fibres. (The mechanical properties of collagen - the fibrous scleroprotein in bone, cartilage, tendon and other connective tissue - are a function of the cross-link pattern, and structure and packing of the fibres.) Whatever the mechanism, the increased rate of torque development and decreased electromechanical delay (time between onset of electrical activity and tension development) are significant for the internal MA. Rate of torque development is a function of the stiffness in the series elastic component (see bellow: in this instance, refers to the tendon) and on the force-velocity characteristics of the contractile component. There appears to be a two-fold process: improved activation in the contractile component (it is sometimes observed after training a single limb thatthere is an increase in MVC in the contralateral, untrained, limb, suggesting changes to the "neuron" part of the neuromuscular system); and the stiffer tendon structures transmitting force more effectively. For electromechanical delay, there again appear to be a number fo factors: excitation-contraction coupling, contraction in the contractile component, and stretching in the series elastic component. In this study, (where the regime was not deemed sufficient to have effected the muscle fibre composition, and hence the performance of the contracile component), the increase in tendon elasticity again results in increased efficiency in transmitting muscular force across the joint.
While the above studies were based on very different intensities of program compared with standing practice and other internal MA exercises, it is interesting to note the various Classic writtings on the importance of "tendon strength" within MA. Once again, it may also be of interest to note the following. With isometric exercises, increases in strength are usually largest at the joint angle at which the exercise is performed - falling off as the angle increases or decreases. It is significant, therefore, that the various standing postures typicaly exhibit a roundness that is also considered desireable from other practical constraints (effective maintance of posture against another fighter, ability to use the circle and "open-close" etc.) - and often closely corresponds with the joint angle at which greatest kinetic strength is acheivable. Thus the optimal limb position as determined by combative criteria, is also the optimal developed through standing practice. Crucially for those interested in applying their art, isometric training is only ever recommended in parallel with dynamic exercises. Both studies above (if we make the assumption that similar physiological changes will occur through the similarm but different, standing practice) indicate the potential benefits of standing for sudden or rapid movement: "dynamic training essentially increases the speed of movement against light loads, whereas isometric training essentially increases the speed of movement against high mechanical resistance." (Duchateau and Hainaut). Hence we may also conclude there is potential benefit for the development of fa jing - though noting that this is but one part of the martial spectrum. However, an isometric exercise, by definition, is not itself training movement of any sort. If one wishes to train explosive movement, one must turn also to plyometrics.
Plyometrics
Various classifications of strength have developed:
- Maximum
gratest force the neuromuscular system is capable of exerting in a single maximum voluntary contraction - Elastic
ability of the neuromuscular system to overcome resitance with a high speed of contraction - Explosive
maximum rate of strength increase per unit time (hence represents an "acceleration")
We are particularly interested in the last two categories. The term "elastic strength" indicates that it encompasses the complex coordination of speed-of-contraction and strength-of-contraction, and involves the use of reflex responses and the elastic components of the muscle-tendon structures (see bellow). Both are usually trained by various types of ballistic exercise: rapid exchange between ecentric and concentric contraction. This has been termed "plyometric".
It is all very well to train to develop power, but power in itself is essentialy impotent. It needs to be directed and released. After standing practice, one should always proceed to training exercises focusing on this storage and release (fa jing). For maximum benefit, the exercise whould be as relevant to movement in combat conditions as possible. Strength development is usually split into general, relevant, and specific components. Plyometric exercise should be though of as at the specific end of this spectrum. "In many sports, improved performance depends on expressing sound technique with greater force at greater speed. The most difficult aspect of this is coorcinating that greater force at greater speed. There is little doubt that it is related to elastic strength but it also involves that sophistication of technique where the existing synchronisation of a specific neuromuscular pattern is challenged." (Dick, p.235) Plyometrics, then, should be seen as training power in auxotonic muscular action.
The exercise shown here is one of those used to train in this manner. It combines shifting of weight from one foot to the other, rotation of the torso, and accumulation (through coiling) and release of power.
It is strongly recommended to train such exercises - indeed the "old masters" were known as much for their repetitive training of very simple (externally) exericses as long and flowing form demonstrations. We would do well too follow their example!
Stretch-Shortening Cycle and Isometric Pre-Tensioning
One of the defining features of plyometric-type exercises is the use of a short pre-stretch before the initiation of the concentric muscle action. This cycle (SSC) produces a number of significant benefits to performance - however, while a number of mechanicms would seem to be involved, debate continues as to which should be considered primary.
Numerous studies have been caried out to examine SSC, a typical paper (studying barbell squats) being Takarada, Hirano, Ishige and Ishii. The charts to the left show some of the results of their experiments: initial force (Fo), maximum force, maximal velocity and power output all significantly incresed with SSC compared with a static lift. This relationship holds as long as the stretch is sufficiently short - a feature of the mechanisms behind the effect, to which we will return.
Another study is also of interest: Walshe, Wilson and Ettema compared SSC, isometric pre-loading (where an isometric contraction is held prior to the conctentric action) and static lifts. In both test cases (SSC and IS) a higher peak-power is generated, with a steeper rate of change. The study demonstrates that the increase in performance does not just depend on the level of force in the muscle prior to the concentric phase, but also on how this force is generated. Looking at the curves, we see that IS maintains the same shape as the static lift, allbeit with greater effect. The SSC produces a very different curve, with a characteristic peak in power in the first 50-150ms of contraction. We have noted that the academic commuinity is still debating which physiological mechanisms are the primary drivers of SSC performance benefits - we do not wish to wade into the midst of this discussion, but some examination of the structure and functioning of muscle-tissue will help us to understand what some of the drivers may be.
Muscle consists of many individual fibres, each being a long, cylindrical, mononucleated cell. Each fibre is surrounded by a protective and connective layer called the perimysium. Moving down in scale, each fibre may in turn be broken down into numerous myofibrils: rod-like strands that run the length of the fibre. The myofibril is cross-striated due to alternating light and dark filaments placed in repeating bands. The dark banding is the thick protein myosin; the light banding the thin poypeptide actin. One unit of these bands is usually referred to as a sarcomere. The sarcomere is the actual unit of conraction in the muscle as actin filaments slide past myosin filaments. When calcium is released into he muscle from neurochemical action, the sacromere shortens by means of a "walking" action caused by cross-bridges between the myosin and actin. The amount of force that may be generated in the muscle is proportional to the number of cross-bridges.
It would be invalid to consider the action of sarcomeres alone: the muscle is a great deal more complex. The perimysium, for example, is an elastic material that gives the muscle much of its ability to stretch and return to its normal resting length. Similarly, the tendon (one of three mechnisms by which the muscle attachs to bone) is made up of inelastic collagen fibres arranged in parallel. Even though the individual collagen fibres are inelastic, the tendon itself may respond elasticaly through recoil and elasticity in the connective tissue. This has led to a mechanical model of muscular contraction that considers each of three components: contractile (CC); series elastic (SEC); and parallel elastic (PEC). The discussion above of shortening within the sarcomeres is bundled into the CC term; the action of connective sheaths and structueral proteins within the muscle is bundled into the PEC term; and the action of the tendons is in the SEC term.
After this brief excursus into basic physiology, we now have the terms with which to look at possible mechanisms of the SSC and isometric pre-tension:
- storage of energy in, and release from, the elastic components
it has been mentioned that the SEC (e.g. perimysium) is responsible for the ability of the muscle to stretch. In the same way, the connective tissue in the tendon may store elastic energy, and due to the overal stiffness of tendon tissue, it can store rather a lot, rather efficiently. It may then form part of the power output come shortening phase. As the tendon is visco-elastic, if the stretch is sustained for any length of time (>0.5s) the tendon exhibits creep, and the store elastic energy is lost as deformation energy and heat. Thus it is is important that the stretch be kept short. - coordination between elastic components and CC
That it is the SEC/ PED that is largely responsible for the stretch in the muscle implies that elastic energy is stored without much increase in length of the CC (some studies indicate that the CC may even shorten as the muscle-tendon structure lengthens). When the shortening phase is entered, the CC moves at a velocity that is less than the velocity of the msucle-tendon structure due to the realease of the elastic component. This has the result of increased force output for a given speed of shortening within the CC. This occurs irrespective of whether the CC is at its optimal length - though as the CC has not lengthened, it may well be closer to its optimum length of conraction, further increasing output (if the stretch were to occur as a result of the relaxation in the CC, it could not be at its optimum length when the shortening phase occured). - reflex potentiation (myoelectric contribution)
both muscle and tendon have reflex systems mediated via the nervous system. It is thought that two systems may have an effect: the golgi-tendon organ and muscle spindle receptors. The GTO is located at the muscoulo-skeletal junction and monitors tension in the muscle. When placed under a stretch, the GTO sends information via Type 1b snesory neurons to the spinal cord. This faciliatates a relaxation of the muscle via stimulation of inhibitory nurons - known as the inverse stretch reflex or autogenic inhibition. The muscle spindle receptors act to form the typical stretch reflex or autogenic facilitation. Here the Type 1b loop is initiated which has the effect of inhibiting the antagonists and excites the synergists of the muscle that is stretched.
It is thought that, correctly used, these two reflexes combine is such a way as to produce a more vigorous contraction in the stretched muscle, with greater activation of synergists and greater relaxation of antagonists than otherwise. - intramuscular coordination
for multi-joint action, performance is not merely a function of the net force released from the individual motor-units, but also the compex pattern in which they combine and coordinate. Proper technique in the stretch phase may be effective in inducing proper technique in the shortening (concentric) phase, thus improving coordination, maximising appropriate coupled forces on the joints. - scaling of max shortening velocity with activation
Chow and Darling have suggested Vmax should be scaled with activation (e.g. from isometric contraction) such that increased activation in the muscle results in a shift to the right on the Hill curve (describing the relationship between Fmax and Vmax. A shift rightwards would see, for a given F, and increase in Vmax) - increased muscle activation
a muscle fibre either fires, or it does not. It is known that isometric exercises increase the activation of the muscle (see above) and it is posited that a similar effect may be caused in the stretch part of the SSC - increased cross bridging
there is some evidence that more cross-bridges are encourages, thus providing a greater contraction at the level of the sarcomere
From the MA perspective, this is further evidence that proper training in the internal methods will lead to definite physiological changes, and efficiencies in the way that power is generated and applied.
Conclusion
One could probably continue at some length on this subject, though I think enough has already been written here to give an indication of the validation of IMA training methods and that the real effectiveness of the IMA has some basis when considered in terms of the modern understanding of the man-machine. (It is already noted that we are constraining ourselves to biomechanics other parts of the IMA - and sporting - spectrum).
Throughout we have tried to give a hint at the meaning by relating the discussion back to traditional terms, practices, and techniques though the list is far from exhaustive and many crossovers have been omitted. We hope that the reader will take up where we have left off and further develop the ideas, integrate them into practice, and help fight against mystification where perfeclty rational explanations will suffice.
References
Bartlett R
Sports Biomechanics
E & FN Spon: London 1999
Chow JW and Darling WG "The Maximum Shortening Velocity of Muscle Should be Scaled with Activation"
J Appl Physiol 86: 1025-1031, 1999
Dick F,W
Sports Training Principles 4th ed.
A&C Black: London 2002
Duchateau J and Hainaut K "Isometric or Dynamic Training: Differential Effects on Mechanical Properties of a Human Muscle"
J Appl Physiol 56: 296-301, 1984
Hamil J and Knutzen K, M
Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement
Lipincott Williams & Wilkins: Philidelphia 1995
Kubo K, Kaneshisa H, Ito M, and Fukunaga T
"Effects of Isometric Training on the Elasticity of Human Tendon Structures in vivo"
J Appl Physiol 91: 26-32, 2001
Palastanga N, Field D and Soames R
Anatomy and Human Movement 4th ed.
Butterworth Heinemann: Oxford 2002
J Appl Physiol 83: 1749-1755, 1997
Walshe A D, Wilson G J, and Ettems G J C "Stretch-shorten Cycle Compared with Isometric Preload: Contributions to Enhanced Muscular Performance"
J Appl Physiol 84: 97-106, 1998
--- The Journal of Applied Biomechanics devoted an entire issue to the Stretch-Shortening cycle and the controversies surrounding the various attempts to find a physiological explanation
J Appl Biomech 13: 4 November 1997
posted by Dr.Media at 10:21 PM
